Analytics and Reports, Military Analytics

The EDCA Network: Revitalizing the U.S.-Philippines Alliance for a New Strategic Era

The Enhanced Defense Cooperation Agreement (EDCA) between the United States and the Philippines, after nearly a decade of fluctuating progress, has been revitalized and expanded, representing a fundamental strategic realignment of the bilateral alliance. This report provides a comprehensive analysis of the nine designated EDCA sites, the operational activities that bring them to life, and the critical role of non-EDCA locations like Subic Bay and Clark. The central finding is that the EDCA network has evolved from an initial concept focused on counter-terrorism and humanitarian assistance into a cornerstone of an integrated deterrence posture aimed at addressing state-level security challenges in the Indo-Pacific.

The nine EDCA sites are now strategically positioned across the Philippine archipelago. The original five locations, established in 2016, provide a dispersed footprint for logistics and training. The four additional sites, announced in 2023, are geographically concentrated in Northern Luzon and Palawan, directly addressing potential contingencies in the Luzon Strait and the South China Sea. Concurrently, the former U.S. military strongholds of Subic Bay and Clark are being re-established as central logistics, maintenance, and power-projection hubs through a symbiotic mix of military initiatives and private-sector investment.

This physical infrastructure is being operationalized through an increasing tempo of large-scale, complex, and often multilateral military exercises. These joint activities serve as the primary mechanism for enhancing interoperability, testing new capabilities, and signaling the alliance’s collective resolve. The EDCA network, therefore, is not merely a collection of facilities but an active and evolving ecosystem designed to bolster Philippine defense modernization and provide the United States with a resilient, distributed, and strategically vital foothold in a contested region.

The Enhanced Defense Cooperation Agreement: Strategic Context and Evolution

The Enhanced Defense Cooperation Agreement is not a standalone treaty but the latest evolution in a multi-layered defense relationship between the United States and the Philippines, built upon decades of security cooperation. Its legal and political legitimacy is anchored in two foundational pacts: the 1951 Mutual Defense Treaty (MDT), which commits both nations to defend each other in the event of an external attack, and the 1998 Visiting Forces Agreement (VFA), which provides the legal framework for the presence of U.S. troops in the Philippines.1

Signed on April 28, 2014, EDCA supplements these earlier agreements by granting U.S. forces rotational access to designated Philippine military bases, referred to as “Agreed Locations”.1 The agreement’s core tenets permit the United States to conduct joint training, construct and operate facilities for mutual use, and preposition defense equipment, supplies, and materiel.1 Critically, EDCA explicitly prohibits the establishment of permanent U.S. military bases, and the Philippines retains ownership and sovereignty over all Agreed Locations—a politically crucial distinction that addresses historical sensitivities surrounding foreign military presence.1 The agreement has an initial term of ten years and continues automatically unless terminated by either party with one year’s written notice.1

A Decade of Fluctuation: From Stagnation to Revival

The implementation of EDCA has served as a direct barometer of the political and strategic alignment between Manila and Washington. The agreement was originally conceived under the administration of President Benigno Aquino III as a direct strategic response to China’s seizure of the Scarborough Shoal in 2012, an event that exposed the Philippines’ vulnerability to external coercion and prompted a rethinking of its defense posture.5

However, the election of President Rodrigo Duterte in 2016 ushered in a period of strategic ambiguity and near-stagnation for the agreement. President Duterte’s pivot towards China and open disdain for the United States effectively froze significant progress on EDCA projects for six years.1 This period was marked by political turbulence that nearly resulted in the abrogation of the VFA, which would have rendered EDCA inoperable.6

A dramatic reversal occurred with the 2022 election of President Ferdinand Marcos Jr. Facing escalating maritime pressure from China, the Marcos administration has “breathed new life” into the alliance, bringing Manila and Washington closer than they have been in a generation.5 This rapprochement was solidified by unequivocal statements from U.S. officials confirming that the MDT’s mutual defense obligations apply to attacks on Philippine armed forces, public vessels, or aircraft in the South China Sea—a clarification that had been intentionally vague for decades.6 This renewed political will has led to an immediate and rapid acceleration of EDCA projects and the landmark expansion of the agreement in 2023.5

The Strategic Pivot: From HADR to Integrated Deterrence

The publicly stated purpose of EDCA has evolved in lockstep with the changing geopolitical landscape. Initially, the agreement was framed primarily around goals of promoting regional peace, enhancing military interoperability, and, most visibly, enabling a more rapid response to the frequent natural disasters that strike the region.1 The groundbreaking for the very first major EDCA project—a Humanitarian Assistance and Disaster Relief (HADR) warehouse at Basa Air Base in 2018—underscored this official narrative.7

While HADR remains a key component, the 2023 expansion and the nature of recent infrastructure projects and military exercises reveal a clear and decisive strategic pivot. The consistent emphasis on HADR in official communications serves a dual purpose. It provides a politically palatable justification for infrastructure development that assuages domestic concerns about sovereignty and avoids direct provocation of regional actors.8 At the same time, this “soft” mission provides cover for the construction of “hard” military infrastructure. Facilities such as rehabilitated runways capable of handling heavy lift aircraft, expanded fuel storage, and integrated command-and-control centers are fundamentally dual-use, optimized for both disaster response and high-end military contingencies.11 This allows the alliance to build tangible capacity for conflict under a less escalatory banner. The focus has now broadened to territorial defense, maritime security, and deterring coercion, aligning with the U.S. Indo-Pacific strategy of dispersing forces across a wider geographic area to create a more resilient, responsive, and lethal posture.5

The EDCA Network: A Comprehensive Overview of Agreed Locations

The EDCA network currently comprises nine Agreed Locations, established in two distinct phases. The first tranche of five sites was agreed upon in March 2016, providing a geographically dispersed footprint across the archipelago that reflected the initial multi-purpose goals of counter-terrorism, maritime security, and disaster relief.1 The second tranche of four sites, announced in April 2023, represents a deliberate strategic concentration in Northern Luzon and the southern province of Palawan, signaling the alliance’s pivot toward territorial defense and regional contingency planning.1

The following table provides a consolidated list of all nine designated EDCA sites.

Table 1: Location of Designated EDCA Sites

Base NameCity / MunicipalityProvince
Original Five (2016)
Antonio Bautista Air BasePuerto PrincesaPalawan
Cesar Basa Air BaseFloridablancaPampanga
Fort MagsaysayPalayan City / Santa RosaNueva Ecija
Mactan-Benito Ebuen Air BaseLapu-Lapu CityCebu
Lumbia AirfieldCagayan de OroMisamis Oriental
Additional Four (2023)
Balabac Island (Naval Station Narciso Del Rosario)BalabacPalawan
Camp Melchor F. dela CruzGamuIsabela
Lal-lo Airport (Cagayan North Int’l Airport)Lal-loCagayan
Naval Base Camilo OsiasSanta AnaCagayan

Operational Tempo: Joint Military Exercises and Activities

The physical infrastructure being developed at the EDCA sites represents the “hardware” of the alliance’s revitalized strategy. The “software” that activates this network is a robust and expanding schedule of joint military exercises. These exercises are the primary vehicle for enhancing interoperability, testing logistics and command-and-control from the Agreed Locations, and signaling collective resolve to allies and potential adversaries alike.1 The immediate use of newly designated sites during major exercises demonstrates that they are not merely being developed for future contingencies but are being actively integrated into operational plans in real-time. This process effectively beta-tests the strategic concept, allowing both militaries to refine tactics and procedures and transform static infrastructure into a cohesive, functional military network.

Key recurring exercises include:

  • Balikatan (“Shoulder-to-Shoulder”): The premier and largest annual bilateral exercise, Balikatan involves thousands of troops conducting complex missions across maritime, land, air, and cyber domains. Recent iterations have focused on maritime security, air and missile defense, amphibious operations, and dynamic missile strikes, with growing participation from allies like Australia and France.12
  • Salaknib: An annual exercise between the U.S. Army and the Philippine Army, Salaknib is designed to enhance land power capacity and interoperability. It is increasingly used as a venue to deploy and test advanced U.S. Army systems, including the Mid-Range Capability (MRC) missile system and the Joint Pacific Multinational Readiness Center-Exportable (JPMRC-X) training package.15
  • Sama Sama (“Together”): A multilateral maritime exercise hosted by the Philippines and the U.S., Sama Sama focuses on enhancing naval cooperation with partners such as Japan, Canada, France, and Australia. Drills typically occur in the vicinity of Subic Bay and cover the full spectrum of naval warfare, including anti-submarine, anti-surface, and anti-air operations.18
  • Other Specialized Exercises: A host of other exercises, such as Cope Thunder (air combat), Marine Aviation Support Activity (MASA), and Alon (with Australia), provide specialized training opportunities that further deepen integration between the allied forces.21

The following table details recent and upcoming military exercises held at EDCA sites and other key strategic locations.

Table 2: Military Exercises at EDCA Sites and Key Locations (2024-2025)

LocationExercise NameDates (2024-2025)Nature of Military Exercises and Activities
Fort Magsaysay, Nueva EcijaSalaknib 24Apr 8 – Jun 10, 2024Opening ceremony; Live-fire exercises (HIMARS, blank/live rounds); Deployment of Joint Pacific Multinational Readiness Center-Exportable (JPMRC-X) for jungle combat training center development. 10
Balikatan 24Apr 22 – May 10, 2024Central basing location for the exercise, specifically hosting jungle training components. 4
Lal-lo Airport, CagayanBalikatan 24Apr 27 – May 9, 2024Staging for air assault missions into northern islands (Batanes); Fly-away Forward Arming and Refueling Point (FARP) operations; Utilized by C-130, CH-47, UH-60 aircraft; Firefighting technique lectures. 4
Balikatan 25April 2025Engineering activities (multipurpose gymnasium construction); Simulated runway repair and recovery operations. 22
Naval Base Camilo Osias, CagayanBalikatan 24Apr 22 – May 9, 2024Utilized as a major event site for the exercise, testing its strategic effectiveness for territorial defense. 4
Balabac Island, PalawanBalikatan 24Apr 22 – May 9, 2024Utilized as a major event site, testing strategic effectiveness for territorial defense in proximity to the South China Sea. 4
Antonio Bautista AB, PalawanExercise Alon 25Aug 15 – 29, 2025Headquarters for Joint Task Force 661; Establishment of a Combined Fusion Centre with AFP Western Command. 4
Dynamic Force EmploymentDec 9 – 13, 2024Bilateral training featuring USAF A-10 Thunderbolt IIs and C-130 Hercules aircraft to enhance regional security and interoperability. 4
Basa Air Base, PampangaMASA 24June 13 – 21, 2024Inaugural landing of USAF F-22 Raptors; Integrated tactical flights with PAF FA-50s; Subject Matter Expert Exchanges on low-level tactical flying. 21
Balikatan 24May 5, 2024Humanitarian Civic Assistance: Joint US-PH Air Force school clean-up project at Basa Air Base National High School. 28
Mactan-Benito Ebuen AB, CebuDynamic Force EmploymentAug 9, 2024Refueling of USAF F-22A Raptors; Knowledge exchange involving USAF C-130J Super Hercules. 4
Clark Air Base, Pampanga (Non-EDCA)Cope Thunder 25-2July 7 – 19, 2025First-ever deployment of USAF F-35A Lightning IIs to the Philippines; Joint patrols over the West Philippine Sea; Drills focused on Northern Luzon. 22
Dynamic Force EmploymentDec 9 – 13, 2024Integrated training with USAF A-10s and PAF assets to enhance interoperability. 31
Subic Bay, Zambales (Non-EDCA)Sama Sama 24Oct 7 – 18, 2024Multilateral maritime exercise with US, PH, Australia, Canada, France, Japan. Focus on anti-submarine, surface, and air warfare; Refueling-at-sea training; CBRN defense, TCCC, and communications drills. 18
KAMANDAG 9June 11, 2025Security drills involving US and Philippine Marines at Oyster Bay. 39
Northern Luzon (General)Salaknib 24April 7 – 11, 2024Historic first deployment of the U.S. Army’s Mid-Range Capability (MRC) missile system to enhance Philippine maritime defense capabilities. 16

Deep Dive—The Original Five Sites (Announced 2016)

The initial five EDCA sites provide a foundational network across the Philippines. While progress was slow for several years, development at these locations has accelerated since 2022. This process is not a unilateral U.S. endeavor; rather, U.S. investments are running in parallel with, and often catalyzing, the Philippines’ own long-term military modernization efforts. U.S. funding for specific, high-value projects like command-and-control centers complements larger, foundational investments by the Armed Forces of the Philippines (AFP) in runway and hangar upgrades, accelerating the overall improvement of these bases for mutual benefit.2

Cesar Basa Air Base (Pampanga)

As the traditional home of the Philippine Air Force’s fighter wing, Basa Air Base in Floridablanca, Pampanga, has become the flagship location for EDCA infrastructure investment.40 It has received more U.S. funding than any other site, positioning it as a premier air hub for joint operations. Key projects include the first-ever EDCA project, a HADR warehouse inaugurated in 2019 1; a major $25 million runway rehabilitation completed in late 2023 to accommodate larger and heavier aircraft 11; and a new $32 million, 625,000-square-foot aircraft parking apron funded under the Pentagon’s Pacific Deterrence Initiative (PDI).42 This new apron will be able to host up to 20 U.S. aircraft, addressing a critical shortfall in parking space.42 The base hosted the historic first landing of U.S. Air Force F-22 Raptors in the Philippines during Exercise MASA 24 and was inspected by the heads of the U.S. Indo-Pacific Command and the AFP in August 2024, underscoring its strategic importance.21

Fort Magsaysay (Nueva Ecija)

Fort Magsaysay is the largest military reservation in the Philippines and a primary training ground for the Philippine Army.45 It serves as a central staging area for major land-based exercises, including the jungle training components of Balikatan and the live-fire drills of Salaknib.4 The U.S. has allocated $11.4 million for EDCA projects at the base, including a HADR warehouse, command-and-control infrastructure, and urban combat training facilities.11 Satellite imagery from mid-2023 showed the HADR warehouse nearing completion.11 Future plans include the construction of an intermediate staging area for the U.S. Army’s Multi-Domain Task Force, a unit designed to operate long-range precision fires like HIMARS.47 The U.S. Army is also actively assisting in the improvement of the base’s live-fire ranges.4

Antonio Bautista Air Base (Palawan)

Located in Puerto Princesa, Palawan, Antonio Bautista Air Base is the EDCA site with the most strategic proximity to the contested Spratly Islands in the South China Sea.11 The U.S. has allocated approximately $1.8 million for projects including an ammunition warehouse, fuel storage, and command-and-control infrastructure.11 While U.S. investment has been modest, the AFP has undertaken significant upgrades independently since 2016, including runway resurfacing and the construction of new hangars and parking aprons.11 The base’s strategic value was highlighted during Exercise Alon 25, when it served as the headquarters for a joint task force and a combined fusion center, and again in late 2024 when it hosted U.S. Air Force A-10s for a Dynamic Force Employment exercise.23

Mactan-Benito Ebuen Air Base (Cebu)

Situated in Lapu-Lapu City, this air base is a critical logistics and air mobility hub for the central Philippines.50 It served as the center for HADR operations following the devastation of Super Typhoon Haiyan in 2013.11 The sole announced U.S.-funded EDCA project is a $2.7 million, 40,000-gallon fuel storage facility, which was scheduled for completion in late 2023.11 The base has also benefited significantly from major upgrades to the co-located Mactan-Cebu International Airport, including a second runway.11 The Philippine government has also funded its own projects, including a newly renovated hangar for C-130 aircraft turned over in September 2024 and another hangar for Black Hawk helicopters nearing completion.52 In August 2024, the base hosted U.S. F-22 Raptors for refueling during a joint training exercise.30

Lumbia Airfield (Cagayan de Oro)

Formerly the main civilian airport for Cagayan de Oro in Mindanao, Lumbia Airfield is now a key Philippine Air Force base for operations in the southern Philippines.53 U.S. EDCA projects include a $3.7 million allocation for a HADR warehouse and runway lighting improvements.11 The base has also seen major upgrades funded by the Philippines, including runway resurfacing, new hangars, and expanded parking aprons.11 A November 2024 inspection by the Philippine Secretary of National Defense confirmed that work was ongoing on the HADR warehouse, a new air traffic control tower, and runway repairs, all intended to enhance support for AFP missions and HADR operations in Mindanao.56

The Northern Luzon Pivot and Palawan’s Frontier: Analysis of the New Sites (Announced 2023)

The selection of the four new EDCA sites in April 2023 is the clearest physical evidence of the U.S.-Philippines alliance’s strategic realignment. The original five sites were geographically dispersed, reflecting a broad mission set that included internal security and nationwide disaster response. In stark contrast, the new sites are geographically concentrated in two critical theaters: Northern Luzon, which overlooks the Luzon Strait and Taiwan, and the southern approach to the Spratly Islands. This deliberate geographic clustering is not random; it is a map of the alliance’s updated threat assessment, directly corresponding to the primary areas of potential friction with China and transforming EDCA from a general cooperation agreement into a focused framework for integrated deterrence.

Naval Base Camilo Osias (Santa Ana, Cagayan)

Positioned at the northeastern tip of Luzon, this naval base offers strategic access to the Luzon Strait, a critical maritime chokepoint for global trade and a key theater in any potential Taiwan contingency.5 Its location is ideal for maritime domain awareness and sea lane control. The Philippines is seeking U.S. assistance to repair the base’s airstrip and construct a new pier, upgrades that would significantly enhance its operational capacity.60 The base’s strategic value was tested during Balikatan 24, where it served as a key staging area for territorial defense drills.4

Camp Melchor F. dela Cruz (Gamu, Isabela)

As the headquarters of the Philippine Army’s 5th Infantry Division, this large camp in Northern Luzon is positioned to support and sustain land-based operations across the region.62 While it was not utilized during Balikatan 24, it is slated for significant future development under EDCA.4 Planned U.S.-funded projects include warehouses for prepositioned assets, a helicopter landing pad, a joint training facility, and, most notably, a command-and-control fusion center designed to synchronize U.S.-Philippine operations during exercises and contingencies.47

Lal-lo Airport (Lal-lo, Cagayan)

This civilian airport, also known as Cagayan North International Airport, possesses a 2,100-meter runway capable of handling military transport aircraft and fighter jets.65 Its location in Northern Luzon makes it an invaluable logistical hub for projecting power into the Batanes Islands and the Luzon Strait.4 The airport has already proven its utility, serving as a critical staging base for air assault missions and as a Forward Arming and Refueling Point (FARP) during Balikatan 24.4 Future EDCA projects are expected to include a fuel storage facility and a command center.61

Balabac Island (Palawan)

Located at the southernmost tip of Palawan, Balabac directly overlooks the South China Sea and the strategic Balabac Strait, a key transit route between the South China Sea and the Sulu Sea.67 This makes it a critical outpost for monitoring the southern approaches to the Spratly Islands. The island is undergoing a major transformation, with Philippine-funded projects including a nearly complete 3-kilometer military runway and a new pier at Naval Station Narciso del Rosario.67 Future EDCA projects are set to include a HADR warehouse and barracks.68 The site’s strategic importance was validated through its use during Balikatan 24 exercises.4

Special Report: The Strategic Revival of Subic Bay and Clark Air Base

While not formally part of the EDCA network, the former U.S. military hubs of Subic Bay and Clark Air Base are experiencing a strategic revival that is indispensable to the broader U.S. force posture in the Philippines. A sophisticated, two-tiered basing architecture is emerging. The nine EDCA sites act as distributed, politically sensitive tactical nodes for forward operations and training. In parallel, Subic and Clark are being re-established as centralized, strategic-level logistical and industrial backbones. This approach leverages private-sector investment and commercial agreements to rebuild a capacity that would be politically difficult to achieve through a formal basing treaty, providing the alliance with both operational flexibility and strategic depth.

Subic Bay: The Re-emerging Logistics and Naval Hub

Once the largest U.S. overseas naval base, Subic Bay’s closure in 1992 was a landmark event in the post-Cold War drawdown.1 Today, it is undergoing a multi-faceted revitalization:

  • Industrial Revival: In a major strategic development, U.S. investment firm Cerberus Capital Management acquired the massive, defunct Hanjin shipyard. In partnership with South Korea’s Hyundai Heavy Industries, the yard has been reopened as Agila Subic, reviving a world-class shipbuilding and repair facility in a critical location.71
  • Logistics and Prepositioning: In early 2025, the U.S. Marine Corps established its new Marine Corps Prepositioning Program-Philippines (MCPP-P) by leasing a warehouse at the former Naval Supply Depot. This facility will stage non-lethal equipment such as vehicles and engineering assets for rapid deployment during HADR or other contingencies.72
  • Future Weapons Hub: The U.S. and the Philippines are advancing ambitious plans to establish a massive weapons manufacturing and logistics hub at Subic. This facility would produce essential materials for munitions, bolstering both Philippine self-reliance and U.S. regional readiness.70 The U.S. Navy is also seeking to lease a large, climate-controlled storage facility in the Subic-Clark corridor by 2026.72
  • Operational Staging Area: Subic Bay consistently serves as the primary venue for complex naval exercises like Sama Sama and hosts specialized units, including U.S. Naval Special Warfare, during training events.18

Clark Air Base: The Premier Air Power Staging Ground

Clark Air Base, formerly a pillar of U.S. air power in the Pacific, now operates as the Clark Freeport Zone.1 While it is not an EDCA site, its extensive, high-quality infrastructure makes it the preferred staging ground for advanced U.S. Air Force deployments. It has demonstrated its role as a key forward operating location by hosting the first-ever deployment of F-35A Lightning II fighters to the Philippines for Exercise Cope Thunder in 2025, as well as A-10 Thunderbolt IIs for Dynamic Force Employment exercises in 2024.22 This allows U.S. airpower to operate from a secure, well-equipped location with easy access to the region’s strategic airspaces.

Synthesis and Strategic Outlook

The revitalization of the U.S.-Philippines alliance, manifested through the expansion and operationalization of the EDCA network, marks a significant shift in the Indo-Pacific’s security architecture. The nine Agreed Locations, complemented by the resurgent strategic hubs at Subic Bay and Clark, form a comprehensive and layered defense network. This network is designed to achieve three interrelated goals: accelerate the modernization of the Armed Forces of the Philippines, deepen bilateral military interoperability across all domains, and provide the United States with a distributed, resilient, and strategically located footprint for regional contingencies.

The future trajectory of the agreement points toward continued investment in infrastructure, particularly at the newer sites in Northern Luzon and Palawan, which are central to the alliance’s deterrence posture. The operational tempo is expected to increase, with joint exercises likely growing in scale, complexity, and multilateral participation.

The evolution of EDCA will remain a key barometer of the health of the U.S.-Philippines alliance and a central element in the region’s response to security challenges. The ultimate success of this strategic realignment will depend on sustained political will in both Manila and Washington and the ability to skillfully manage the complex geopolitical dynamics of the Indo-Pacific.

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