The global landscape of infantry small arms underwent a seismic shift in the 1960s. The United States’ adoption of the M16 rifle and its revolutionary 5.56x45mm M193 cartridge during the Vietnam War showcased the profound tactical advantages of a small-caliber, high-velocity (SCHV) round. Soviet intelligence, ever watchful of Western military developments, acquired and meticulously studied this new American system.¹ The analysis revealed a compelling set of benefits that the Soviet Union’s own standard-issue 7.62x39mm cartridge, while robust and effective, could not match.

This analysis spurred the Soviet military establishment to formulate a new set of requirements for its next generation of infantry weapons. The motivations were clear and rooted in the practical realities of modern warfare. First, a lighter cartridge would significantly reduce the individual soldier’s combat load, allowing more ammunition to be carried for the same weight—a critical logistical advantage in any sustained engagement.² Second, the significantly lower recoil impulse of an SCHV round, compared to the stout kick of the 7.62x39mm, promised to make the standard-issue rifle far more controllable during automatic fire, thus increasing practical accuracy and the volume of effective suppressive fire a soldier could deliver.⁵ Finally, and perhaps most importantly, the high velocity of a smaller projectile results in a much flatter trajectory. This increases the maximum point-blank range (or “battle zero”), simplifying aim and increasing the probability of a hit on man-sized targets at typical combat distances, a primary development goal for the new system.¹

The culmination of this strategic pivot was the official introduction in 1974 of a new, integrated weapon system: the AK-74 assault rifle and its bespoke 5.45x39mm cartridge. This pairing would come to define Soviet and later Russian infantry firepower for decades, gradually supplementing and then largely replacing the venerable AKM and its 7.62x39mm ammunition across the Warsaw Pact.²

Section 1: Genesis of a New Caliber

The development of the new cartridge was undertaken in the early 1970s by a dedicated team of designers and engineers at the prestigious Central Scientific-Research Institute for Precision Machine Engineering (TsNIITochMash). Under the direction of M. Sabelnikov, this group, which included notable figures like L. I. Bulavsky and B. B. Semin, was tasked with creating the heart of the new weapon system.⁴ Concurrently, the rifle platform itself, the AK-74, was developed by a group led by A. D. Kryakushin, working under the overall design supervision of Mikhail Kalashnikov.⁸

Engineering a New Case

A critical early decision in the cartridge’s development was to engineer an entirely new case rather than simply necking down the existing 7.62x39mm case. While the Soviets had prior experience with this concept in the form of the 5.6x39mm cartridge (known in the West as the.220 Russian), its parent case geometry was deemed suboptimal for a modern military assault rifle.¹⁰ The 7.62x39mm case features a significant body taper and a wide base diameter of 11.35mm.¹⁰ This geometry, while functional, is inefficient for stacking in high-capacity, double-stack box magazines, necessitating the deeply curved “banana” magazine profile and limiting capacity relative to magazine size.

Observing the advantages of the straighter-walled, slimmer 5.56x45mm NATO round, the Soviet designers made a deliberate engineering trade-off. They designed a new case with a base diameter of 10.00mm—a compromise between the wide Soviet 7.62mm and the slim NATO 5.56mm.⁹ This smaller base allowed for a less pronounced case taper, enabling the design of straighter, more compact, and lighter-weight magazines. However, by keeping the new case’s overall length at 39.82mm, very close to its predecessor, the designers ensured that the fundamental, combat-proven long-stroke piston action of the AKM could be adapted with minimal changes to the bolt’s travel distance and the overall receiver dimensions. This approach of “optimized adaptation” saved significant development time and resources, marrying a proven operating system with a cartridge case purpose-built for the SCHV paradigm.¹

Final Specifications

The resulting cartridge is a rimless, bottleneck design with an overall length of 57.00mm, standardized by the C.I.P. (Commission Internationale Permanente pour l’Epreuve des Armes à Feu Portatives).⁴ The design was specifically optimized for ballistic performance from the AK-74’s standard 415mm (16.3-inch) barrel. This was a key point of divergence from its NATO counterpart, the M193, which was optimized for the M16’s longer 20-inch barrel. This optimization allowed the 5.45x39mm to achieve impressive velocities of around 880-900 m/s from a shorter, handier rifle platform.²

The table below provides a direct comparison of the standard 5.45x39mm service round against its predecessor and its primary Cold War adversary.

Table 1: Comparative Cartridge Specifications

Specification	5.45x39mm (7N6)	7.62x39mm (M43)	5.56x45mm (M193)
Bullet Diameter	5.60 mm	7.92 mm	5.70 mm
Case Length	39.82 mm	38.70 mm	44.70 mm
Overall Length	57.00 mm	56.00 mm	57.40 mm
Typical Bullet Wt.	3.43 g (53 gr)	7.9 g (122 gr)	3.6 g (55 gr)
Muzzle Velocity	~880 m/s (2,887 fps)	~710 m/s (2,330 fps)	~990 m/s (3,250 fps)
Muzzle Energy	~1,328 J (979 ft-lbf)	~1,991 J (1,469 ft-lbf)	~1,764 J (1,302 ft-lbf)
Data compiled from.2 Velocities are approximate and vary with barrel length and specific loading.

Section 2: Anatomy of the 7N6 “Poison Bullet”

The standard-issue cartridge adopted in 1974, designated 7Н6 (7N6) by the GRAU (Main Missile and Artillery Directorate of the Ministry of Defense), featured a projectile of remarkably complex construction for a mass-produced military round. Briefly known by the designation 5Н7 (5N7), the 7N6’s 3.43 g (52.9 gr) boat-tail bullet was the key to the system’s performance and its fearsome reputation.¹

The bullet’s construction consists of several distinct components:

• A. Jacket (Оболочка): The outer shell is a bimetal jacket, consisting of a steel layer clad in gilding metal (an alloy of copper and zinc, also known as tombac).⁴
• B. Steel Core (Стальной сердечник): Seated inside the jacket is a 1.43 g flat-nosed, cylindrical penetrator made of unhardened mild steel, specifically Grade 10 steel.⁴
• C. Hollow Cavity (Полость): A defining feature is the hollow air space, approximately 5mm deep, left inside the nose of the bullet between the tip of the jacket and the front face of the steel core.²
• D. Lead Inlay (Свинцовая рубашка): A thin layer of lead is swaged around the steel core, filling the gap between the core and the inner wall of the jacket.⁴
• E. Propellant (Метательный заряд): The case is charged with a flake-type smokeless powder, designated Сф033фл (Sf033fl), to propel the bullet.⁹

Engineered Terminal Ballistics

The 7N6 bullet was not designed to expand or fragment like a Western soft-point or hollow-point round. Its lethality was derived from a violent and highly predictable tumbling action upon entering soft tissue.² This behavior was a direct result of its sophisticated internal construction. The combination of the lightweight, hollow nose and the dense steel core located further back shifted the bullet’s center of gravity significantly towards its base.⁴

When the high-velocity projectile strikes a fluid-bearing medium like tissue, the hydraulic pressure causes the hollow nose to deform. Simultaneously, the inherent instability from the rearward center of gravity causes the bullet to immediately and violently yaw, tumbling end-over-end. High-speed ballistic testing has shown that the bullet performs this tumble twice as it passes through a target, creating a massive temporary wound cavity and an erratic wound path far more devastating than its small caliber would suggest.²

The “Poison Bullet” Moniker

The combat debut of the AK-74 and its 7N6 ammunition came during the Soviet-Afghan War (1979-1989). It was here that the round earned its infamous nickname: the “Poison Bullet” (a term also used for the 7N6M).³ This moniker was not due to any chemical agent. Rather, it was the direct result of the bullet’s terminal performance. The severe internal trauma caused by the tumbling projectile, combined with the often-delayed and rudimentary field medical care available to the Afghan mujahideen, frequently led to catastrophic, untreatable infections and gangrene.⁴ The devastating wounds were so unlike those from the previous 7.62x39mm that the fighters mistakenly believed the bullets must be poisoned.

Section 3: The Philosophy of Soviet Mass Production: Steel, Lacquer, and Corrosive Primers

The design choices underpinning the mass production of 5.45x39mm ammunition—specifically the use of steel cases, lacquer coatings, and corrosive primers—are a direct reflection of Soviet military doctrine and industrial philosophy. These were not signs of technological deficiency but deliberate engineering decisions prioritizing cost, long-term reliability, and performance in harsh conditions over individual convenience.

The Steel Case

Unlike NATO nations, which standardized on more expensive brass for their cartridge cases, the Soviet Union and its Warsaw Pact allies overwhelmingly chose steel.²⁶ The rationale was simple and strategic: steel is vastly cheaper and its raw materials more abundant than the copper and zinc required for brass. For a military planning for a potential continent-spanning conflict requiring billions of rounds of ammunition, the immense cost savings were a paramount consideration. This allowed for the creation and maintenance of enormous strategic stockpiles.²⁶

The Lacquer (or Polymer) Coating

Steel, unlike brass, is susceptible to rust. To ensure the longevity and functionality of steel-cased ammunition, a protective coating is essential. Early Soviet 5.45x39mm ammunition was coated with a distinctive green or brown-hued lacquer, while some later military and most commercial variants use a thin polymer coating.³ This coating serves two critical functions. First and foremost, it provides a robust, waterproof seal that protects the steel case from corrosion, ensuring that ammunition remains viable even after decades of storage in military depots.²⁶ Second, steel is harder and possesses a higher coefficient of friction than brass. The slick lacquer or polymer coating ensures smooth, reliable feeding from the magazine into the chamber and positive extraction after firing. This is particularly important in the AK rifle platform, which, despite its famous reliability, has generous tolerances that benefit from the reduced friction provided by the coating.²⁶ The popular myth of lacquer coatings melting and fouling chambers is largely unfounded with military-specification ammunition, which uses a thermoset lacquer designed to withstand high temperatures.²⁷

The Corrosive Berdan Primer

The most misunderstood aspect of Soviet ammunition design is the persistent use of corrosive Berdan primers. The priming compound contains potassium chlorate, which upon ignition leaves behind potassium chloride salts in the firearm’s bore and gas system.³⁰ These salts are hygroscopic, meaning they attract and absorb moisture from the atmosphere, leading to rapid and severe rust and pitting if not neutralized and removed.³²

This was not an oversight. Soviet engineers continued to specify corrosive primers for two primary reasons. First, the chemical compounds are exceptionally stable, giving the ammunition an extremely long and reliable shelf life, a vital characteristic for war reserve stockpiles.²⁸ Second, and most critically, corrosive primers offer superior ignition reliability in the extremely low temperatures (below $-40^{\circ}$C) that define the potential operating environments for the Soviet and Russian armies. At the time of the 5.45x39mm’s development, non-corrosive primer compounds had not yet proven as effective in deep cold.³⁰ The trade-off was clear: guaranteed function in any climate in exchange for a more demanding cleaning regimen for the individual soldier, who was trained to use water or water-based solutions to dissolve and remove the salts before regular cleaning and oiling.

This entire design philosophy illustrates how doctrine dictates engineering. Where a Western military might prioritize the individual soldier’s convenience with non-corrosive, reloadable brass ammunition, the Soviet system prioritized the needs of a massive, state-controlled, conscript-based military. Cost, storage life, and all-weather reliability were non-negotiable. The “flaws” of steel cases and corrosive primers from a Western user’s perspective were, in fact, essential features from the standpoint of Soviet military-economic strategy.

Section 4: A Lineage of Lethality: Military Variants and Designations

As personal body armor became more prevalent on the battlefield, the original 7N6 cartridge’s performance limitations necessitated a continuous evolution of the 5.45x39mm round. This led to a family of specialized military cartridges, each designed to meet a new threat and identified by a GRAU index and, in most cases, a distinctive color code.

• 7Н6 (7N6) / 5,45 ПС (PS): The original 1974 “Standard” (Пуля Стандартная) ball round. It features a 3.43g bullet with a mild (unhardened) steel core. It is identified by a red lacquer sealant at the case mouth and primer pocket, with no color on the bullet tip.⁴
• 7Н6М (7N6M): Introduced in 1987, this is the “Modernized” (Модернизированный) version of the 7N6. While externally identical (red sealant, no tip color), its 1.43g steel core is hardened to approximately 60 HRC. This significantly improved its ability to penetrate light cover and early-generation body armor.¹
• 7Н10 (7N10) / 5,45 ПП (PP): Adopted in 1992, the “Enhanced Penetration” (Повышенной Пробиваемости) round was a significant step up. It uses a heavier 3.62g bullet with a larger, sharpened, and hardened steel core (made of Steel 70 or 75). The hollow air space of the 7N6 is filled with lead to increase sectional density. This round is identified by a distinctive violet/purple lacquer sealant ring.¹
• 7Н22 (7N22) / 5,45 БП (BP): An “Armor-Piercing” (Бронебойный) round introduced in 1998. Its 3.68g bullet contains a sharp-pointed penetrator core made of high-carbon U12A tool steel. It can defeat a 5mm steel plate at 250 meters. It is easily identified by a black bullet tip and a red sealant ring.¹
• 7Н24 (7N24) / 5,45 БС (BS): Also from 1998, this “Special Armor-Piercing” (Бронебойный Специальный) round features a 4.1g bullet with a core made of a dense tungsten alloy. It was designed to defeat modern, hardened armor plates. Identification has varied, but it is typically marked with a black tip or a black sealant ring.¹ The improved 7N24M variant appeared in 2007.¹
• 7Н39 (7N39) “Игольник” (Igolnik – “Needle”): The current top-tier armor-piercing round, introduced circa 2013. It uses a two-part core with a tungsten carbide penetrator to defeat advanced body armor at extended ranges. It is identified by a black tip and a violet sealant ring.³⁸

Specialist Rounds

• 7Т3 / 7Т3М (7T3 / 7T3M): A “Tracer” (Трассирующий) round that provides a bright red visible trace out to 800-850 meters for fire adjustment and target designation. It is identified by a green bullet tip.¹
• 7У1 (7U1): A “Reduced Velocity” (Уменьшенной Скорости) subsonic cartridge for use with suppressed firearms like the AKS-74UB. It fires a heavy 5.2g bullet at approximately 303 m/s. It is identified by a black and green bullet tip.¹
• 7Х3 (7Kh3): A “Blank” (Холостой) cartridge. It uses a hollow white plastic projectile that disintegrates upon firing. A blank-firing adapter must be fitted to the rifle’s muzzle to generate enough pressure to cycle the action.¹⁵
• 7Х4 (7Kh4): A “Training/Drill” (Учебный) cartridge. This is a completely inert dummy round used for training weapon manipulation. For easy identification, even in darkness, the case has four distinctive longitudinal flutes pressed into its body.¹

The following table summarizes the identification features of these primary military variants.

Table 2: Military 5.45x39mm Variant Identification Guide

GRAU Index	Cyrillic Name	English Name	Year Intro.	Bullet Construction	Tip Color	Sealant Color	Purpose
7N6	5,45 ПС	Standard	1974	Mild Steel Core, Air Pocket	None	Red	Anti-Personnel
7N6M	5,45 ПС	Standard, Modernized	1987	Hardened Steel Core, Air Pocket	None	Red	Anti-Personnel
7N10	5,45 ПП	Enhanced Penetration	1992	Hardened Steel Core, Lead Filled	None	Violet/Purple	Barrier/Light Armor
7N22	5,45 БП	Armor-Piercing	1998	Tool Steel Penetrator	Black	Red	Armor-Piercing
7N24	5,45 БС	Special Armor-Piercing	1998	Tungsten Alloy Core	Black	Red or Black	Hard Armor-Piercing
7N39	Игольник	“Needle”	~2013	Tungsten Carbide Penetrator	Black	Violet/Purple	Advanced AP
7T3/M	5,45 T	Tracer	~1974	Lead Core, Tracer Compound	Green	Red	Tracing/Marking
7U1	5,45 УС	Reduced Velocity	~1980s	Lead Core, Heavy Bullet	Black & Green	Red	Suppressed Fire
7Kh3	5,45 Х	Blank	~1974	White Plastic Projectile	White Plastic	N/A	Training (Sound)
7Kh4	5,45 УЧ	Training/Drill	~1974	Inert, Fluted Case	None	N/A	Training (Handling)
Data compiled from.1

Section 5: Reading the History: Ammunition Identification and Packaging

Identifying Soviet-era and Russian 5.45x39mm ammunition involves understanding a clear, hierarchical system of markings applied from the individual cartridge case to the bulk shipping crate.

Part 1: Headstamp Identification

The base of each military cartridge case, known as the headstamp, contains crucial information about its origin. The system is remarkably simple, typically consisting of just two elements stamped into the case head at the 12 o’clock and 6 o’clock positions.⁴³

• Factory Code (Номер завода): A one, two, or three-digit number that identifies the manufacturing plant. This code is located at the 12 o’clock position. Key factories that produced 5.45x39mm include:

• 3: Ulyanovsk Cartridge Works, Ulyanovsk
• 7: Vympel Ammunition Plant, Amursk
• 17: Barnaul Cartridge Plant, Barnaul
• 60: Frunze Machine-Building Plant, Bishkek (Soviet Kyrgyzstan)
• 270: Lugansk Cartridge Works, Luhansk (Soviet Ukraine)
• 539: Tula Cartridge Works, Tula
  
  ²¹
• Year of Manufacture (Год изготовления): The last two digits of the year of production are stamped at the 6 o’clock position (e.g., “82” signifies 1982).²¹

Part 2: Packaging Hierarchy and Markings

Soviet ammunition was packaged for long-term storage and efficient distribution using a standardized three-level system.

Level 1: The Paper Packet (Бумажный пакет)

The most basic unit of packaging is a simple, unbleached kraft paper packet, typically containing 30 loose rounds.²² These packets are ink-stamped with basic identifying information. A typical marking would include:

• 5,45 гс ПС: Caliber (5,45), Case Type (гс for гильза стальная, “steel case”), and Bullet Type (ПС for пуля стандартная, “standard bullet”).
• 30 шт: Quantity (шт for штук, “pieces”).
• Lot, Year, and Factory Information: Often includes a lot number, year, and factory code.

Level 2: The “Spam Can” (Герметичная упаковка)

For long-term storage, paper packets are sealed inside a hermetically sealed, painted sheet-metal container, colloquially known in the West as a “spam can”.⁴⁸ A standard can for 5.45x39mm ammunition holds 1,080 rounds (36 packets of 30) and is opened with a special key-like tool.⁵⁰ The exterior is marked with black stenciled paint providing detailed information.

Example Spam Can Markings and Translation:

Cyrillic Stencil	Roman Transliteration	English Translation & Meaning
5,45 ПС гс	5,45 PS gs	Caliber: 5.45mm, Bullet: Standard (PS), Case: Steel (gs)
1080 ШТ	1080 SHT	Quantity: 1080 Rounds (Pieces)
Г8-85-539	G8-85-539	Lot-Year-Factory: Lot G8, Year 1985, Factory 539 (Tula)
ПОРОХ: Сф033фл 2/85К	POROKH: Sf033fl 2/85K	Powder: Grade Sf033fl, Lot 2, Year 1985, Mfr. K (Kazan)

Additionally, a colored stripe corresponding to the bullet type’s color code (e.g., a green stripe for tracer rounds) is often painted on the can for quick identification in a stack.²²

Level 3: The Wooden Crate (Деревянный ящик)

The final layer of packaging is a sturdy wooden shipping crate, typically painted olive drab. These crates usually contain two spam cans, for a total of 2,160 rounds, and are secured with metal strapping.⁵³ The exterior markings are stenciled in black and largely replicate the information on the cans for logistical purposes, along with gross weight and handling warnings.⁵⁴

Table 3: Glossary of Common Cyrillic Ammunition Markings

Cyrillic	Roman	English Translation	Context/Meaning
ПС	PS	Standard Bullet	Пуля Стандартная, the standard ball round (7N6/7N6M)
ПП	PP	Enhanced Penetration	Повышенной Пробиваемости, improved penetration round (7N10)
БП	BP	Armor-Piercing	Бронебойный, armor-piercing round (7N22)
БС	BS	Special Armor-Piercing	Бронебойный Специальный, tungsten core AP round (7N24)
Т	T	Tracer	Трассирующий, tracer round (7T3/M)
УС	US	Reduced Velocity	Уменьшенной Скорости, subsonic round (7U1)
Х	Kh	Blank	Холостой, blank cartridge (7Kh3)
гс	gs	Steel Case	гильза стальная, lacquered steel case
гж	gzh	Iron Case	гильза железная, an older term for steel case
ШТ	SHT	Pieces	штук, the unit count for rounds
ПАРТИЯ	PARTIYA	Lot	Ammunition production lot number
ЗАВОД	ZAVOD	Factory	Manufacturing plant
ПОРОХ	POROKH	Powder	Propellant
Data compiled from.15

Conclusion: The Enduring Legacy of the 5.45x39mm

The 5.45x39mm cartridge stands as a quintessential product of Soviet military engineering: pragmatic, economical, and brutally effective for its intended purpose. Its design and evolution provide a clear window into the strategic priorities of a superpower during the Cold War.

Strengths

The cartridge’s primary advantages were realized immediately upon its introduction. The low recoil impulse and high velocity resulted in a rifle that was significantly more controllable in automatic fire and easier for the average conscript to shoot accurately at various ranges compared to its 7.62x39mm predecessor.⁵ The flat trajectory simplified aiming and increased hit probability out to the rifle’s effective range of approximately 500 meters.² The engineered tumbling effect of the standard 7N6 projectile proved devastatingly lethal against unarmored targets.² Furthermore, the lighter weight of the ammunition provided a distinct logistical benefit, allowing more rounds to be carried by both the individual soldier and the supply chain as a whole.² Finally, the overarching design philosophy emphasizing steel cases and corrosive primers guaranteed extreme durability and decades-long shelf life, ensuring the viability of massive war reserve stockpiles.²⁶

Weaknesses

The design was not without its trade-offs. The lightweight 7N6 projectile was notoriously poor at penetrating intermediate barriers like heavy brush, wood, or automobile glass, often deflecting where the heavier 7.62x39mm bullet would push through.¹ While this was addressed in later armor-piercing variants like the 7N10, it was a notable weakness of the initial service round. For the modern civilian shooter, the corrosive nature of the widely available and inexpensive military surplus ammunition is a significant consideration, demanding a diligent and specific cleaning regimen involving water or ammonia-based solvents to prevent rapid damage to the firearm.⁶ Lastly, in Western markets, the cartridge has suffered from relatively limited commercial support. Compared to the ubiquitous 5.56x45mm NATO and 7.62x39mm, there are fewer firearms and a smaller variety of commercial loadings available, a situation exacerbated by recent bans on the importation of Russian-made ammunition.³

Ultimately, the 5.45x39mm cartridge is a case study in purpose-driven design. Born from the strategic pressures of the Cold War, its every feature—from the projectile’s complex internal structure to the lacquered steel of its case—reflects a deep and calculated understanding of terminal ballistics, mass production economics, and military doctrine. Its continuous evolution to defeat new threats and its persistent presence on modern battlefields from Chechnya to Ukraine confirm its status as an enduring and historically significant military cartridge.⁴

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